A-Level Biology OCR A H420

(i) natural clones in plants and the production of natural clones for use in horticulture

(ii) how to take plant cuttings as an example of a simple cloning technique

To include examples of natural cloning and the methods used to produce clones (various forms of vegetative propagation). Dissection of a selection of plant material to produce cuttings. PAG2

(i) the production of artificial clones of plants by micropropagation and tissue culture

(ii) the arguments for and against artificial cloning in plants

To include an evaluation of the uses of plant cloning in horticulture and agriculture.

natural clones in animal species

To include examples of natural clones (twins formed by embryo splitting).

(i) how artificial clones in animals can be produced by artificial embryo twinning or by enucleation and somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

(ii) the arguments for and against artificial cloning in animals

To include an evaluation of the uses of animal cloning (examples including in agriculture and medicine, and issues of longevity of cloned animals).

the use of microorganisms in biotechnological processes

To include reasons why microorganisms are used e.g. economic considerations, short life cycle, growth requirements AND processes including brewing, baking, cheese making, yoghurt production, penicillin production, insulin production and bioremediation.

the advantages and disadvantages of using microorganisms to make food for human consumption

To include bacterial and fungal sources.

(i) how to culture microorganisms effectively, using aseptic techniques

(ii) the importance of manipulating the growing conditions in batch and continuous fermentation in order to maximise the yield of product required

iPAG7/i]

(i) the standard growth curve of a microorganism in a closed culture

To include the formula for number of individual organisms

$N = N_0 × 2^n$

(ii) practical investigations into the factors affecting the growth of microorganisms

PAG7

the uses of immobilised enzymes in biotechnology and the different methods of immobilisation

*To include methods of enzyme immobilisation AND an evaluation of the use of immobilised enzymes in biotechnology

examples could include:

• glucose isomerase for the conversion of glucose to fructose
• penicillin acylase for the formation of semi-synthetic penicillins (to which some penicillin-resistant organisms are not resistant)
• lactase for the hydrolysis of lactose to glucose and galactose
• aminoacylase for production of pure samples of L-amino acids
• glucoamylase for the conversion of dextrins to glucose PAG4*